Since get_relation_foreign_keys doesn't try to determine whether RTEs
are actually part of the query semantics, it might make FK info records
linking to RTEs that won't have a RelOptInfo at all.  Cope with that.
Per bug #14219 from Andrew Gierth.

Report: <20160629183338.1397.43514@wrigleys.postgresql.org>

This patch provides a new implementation of the logic added by commit
137805f8 and later removed by 77ba6108.  It differs from the original
primarily in expending much less effort per joinrel in large queries,
which it accomplishes by doing most of the matching work once per query not
once per joinrel.  Hopefully, it's also less buggy and better commented.
The never-documented enable_fkey_estimates GUC remains gone.

There remains work to be done to make the selectivity estimates account
for nulls in FK referencing columns; but that was true of the original
patch as well.  We may be able to address this point later in beta.
In the meantime, any error should be in the direction of overestimating
rather than underestimating joinrel sizes, which seems like the direction
we want to err in.

Tomas Vondra and Tom Lane

Discussion: <31041.1465069446@sss.pgh.pa.us>

Given a left join containing a full join in its righthand side, with
the left join's joinclause referencing only one side of the full join
(in a non-strict fashion, so that the full join doesn't get simplified),
the planner could fail with "failed to build any N-way joins" or related
errors.  This happened because the full join was seen as overlapping the
left join's RHS, and then recent changes within join_is_legal() caused
that function to conclude that the full join couldn't validly be formed.
Rather than try to rejigger join_is_legal() yet more to allow this,
I think it's better to fix initsplan.c so that the required join order
is explicit in the SpecialJoinInfo data structure.  The previous coding
there essentially ignored full joins, relying on the fact that we don't
flatten them in the joinlist data structure to preserve their ordering.
That's sufficient to prevent a wrong plan from being formed, but as this
example shows, it's not sufficient to ensure that the right plan will
be formed.  We need to work a bit harder to ensure that the right plan
looks sane according to the SpecialJoinInfos.

Per bug #14105 from Vojtech Rylko.  This was apparently induced by
commit 8703059c (though now that I've seen it, I wonder whether there
are related cases that could have failed before that); so back-patch
to all active branches.  Unfortunately, that patch also went into 9.0,
so this bug is a regression that won't be fixed in that branch.

In commit 19a54114 I did not make PathTarget a subtype of Node,
and embedded a RelOptInfo's reltarget directly into it rather than having
a separately-allocated Node.  In hindsight that was misguided
micro-optimization, enabled by the fact that at that point we didn't have
any Paths with custom PathTargets.  Now that PathTarget processing has
been fleshed out some more, it's easier to see that it's better to have
PathTarget as an indepedent Node type, even if it does cost us one more
palloc to create a RelOptInfo.  So change it while we still can.

This commit just changes the representation, without doing anything more
interesting than that.

All along, this function should have treated WindowFuncs in a manner
similar to Aggrefs, ie with an option whether or not to recurse into them.
By not considering the case, it was always recursing, which is OK for most
callers (although I suspect that the case in prepare_sort_from_pathkeys
might represent a bug).  But now we need return-without-recursing behavior
as well.  There are also more than a few callers that should never see a
WindowFunc, and now we'll get some error checking on that.

In commit 1d97c19a and later c1d9579d, we extended
pull_var_clause's API by adding enum-type arguments.  That's sort of a pain
to maintain, though, because it means every time we add a new behavior we
must touch every last one of the call sites, even if there's a reasonable
default behavior that most of them could use.  Let's switch over to using a
bitmask of flags, instead; that seems more maintainable and might save a
nanosecond or two as well.  This commit changes no behavior in itself,
though I'm going to follow it up with one that does add a new behavior.

In passing, remove flatten_tlist(), which has not been used since 9.1
and would otherwise need the same API changes.

Removing these enums means that optimizer/tlist.h no longer needs to
depend on optimizer/var.h.  Changing that caused a number of C files to
need addition of #include "optimizer/var.h" (probably we can thank old
runs of pgrminclude for that); but on balance it seems like a good change
anyway.

Up to now, there's been an assumption that all Paths for a given relation
compute the same output column set (targetlist).  However, there are good
reasons to remove that assumption.  For example, an indexscan on an
expression index might be able to return the value of an expensive function
"for free".  While we have the ability to generate such a plan today in
simple cases, we don't have a way to model that it's cheaper than a plan
that computes the function from scratch, nor a way to create such a plan
in join cases (where the function computation would normally happen at
the topmost join node).  Also, we need this so that we can have Paths
representing post-scan/join steps, where the targetlist may well change
from one step to the next.  Therefore, invent a "struct PathTarget"
representing the columns we expect a plan step to emit.  It's convenient
to include the output tuple width and tlist evaluation cost in this struct,
and there will likely be additional fields in future.

While Path nodes that actually do have custom outputs will need their own
PathTargets, it will still be true that most Paths for a given relation
will compute the same tlist.  To reduce the overhead added by this patch,
keep a "default PathTarget" in RelOptInfo, and allow Paths that compute
that column set to just point to their parent RelOptInfo's reltarget.
(In the patch as committed, actually every Path is like that, since we
do not yet have any cases of custom PathTargets.)

I took this opportunity to provide some more-honest costing of
PlaceHolderVar evaluation.  Up to now, the assumption that "scan/join
reltargetlists have cost zero" was applied not only to Vars, where it's
reasonable, but also PlaceHolderVars where it isn't.  Now, we add the eval
cost of a PlaceHolderVar's expression to the first plan level where it can
be computed, by including it in the PathTarget cost field and adding that
to the cost estimates for Paths.  This isn't perfect yet but it's much
better than before, and there is a way forward to improve it more.  This
costing change affects the join order chosen for a couple of the regression
tests, changing expected row ordering.

Once upon a time it was necessary for grouping_planner() to determine
the tlist it wanted from the scan/join plan subtree before it called
query_planner(), because query_planner() would actually make a Plan using
that.  But we refactored things a long time ago to delay construction of
the Plan tree till later, so there's no need to build that tlist until
(and indeed unless) we're ready to plaster it onto the Plan.  The only
thing query_planner() cares about is what Vars are going to be needed for
the tlist, and it can perfectly well get that by looking at the real tlist
rather than some masticated version.

Well, actually, there is one minor glitch in that argument, which is that
make_subplanTargetList also adds Vars appearing only in HAVING to the
tlist it produces.  So now we have to account for HAVING explicitly in
build_base_rel_tlists.  But that just adds a few lines of code, and
I doubt it moves the needle much on processing time; we might be doing
pull_var_clause() twice on the havingQual, but before we had it scanning
dummy tlist entries instead.

This is a very small down payment on rationalizing grouping_planner
enough so it can be refactored.

Backpatch certain files through 9.1

I originally modeled this data structure on SpecialJoinInfo, but after
commit acfcd45c that looks like a pretty poor decision.
All we really need is relid sets identifying laterally-referenced rels;
and most of the time, what we want to know about includes indirect lateral
references, a case the LateralJoinInfo data was unsuited to compute with
any efficiency.  The previous commit redefined RelOptInfo.lateral_relids
as the transitive closure of lateral references, so that it easily supports
checking indirect references.  For the places where we really do want just
direct references, add a new RelOptInfo field direct_lateral_relids, which
is easily set up as a copy of lateral_relids before we perform the
transitive closure calculation.  Then we can just drop lateral_info_list
and LateralJoinInfo and the supporting code.  This makes the planner's
handling of lateral references noticeably more efficient, and shorter too.

Such a change can't be back-patched into stable branches for fear of
breaking extensions that might be looking at the planner's data structures;
but it seems not too late to push it into 9.5, so I've done so.

More fuzz testing by Andreas Seltenreich exposed that the planner did not
cope well with chains of lateral references.  If relation X references Y
laterally, and Y references Z laterally, then we will have to scan X on the
inside of a nestloop with Z, so for all intents and purposes X is laterally
dependent on Z too.  The planner did not understand this and would generate
intermediate joins that could not be used.  While that was usually harmless
except for wasting some planning cycles, under the right circumstances it
would lead to "failed to build any N-way joins" or "could not devise a
query plan" planner failures.

To fix that, convert the existing per-relation lateral_relids and
lateral_referencers relid sets into their transitive closures; that is,
they now show all relations on which a rel is directly or indirectly
laterally dependent.  This not only fixes the chained-reference problem
but allows some of the relevant tests to be made substantially simpler
and faster, since they can be reduced to simple bitmap manipulations
instead of searches of the LateralJoinInfo list.

Also, when a PlaceHolderVar that is due to be evaluated at a join contains
lateral references, we should treat those references as indirect lateral
dependencies of each of the join's base relations.  This prevents us from
trying to join any individual base relations to the lateral reference
source before the join is formed, which again cannot work.

Andreas' testing also exposed another oversight in the "dangerous
PlaceHolderVar" test added in commit 85e5e222.  Simply rejecting
unsafe join paths in joinpath.c is insufficient, because in some cases
we will end up rejecting *all* possible paths for a particular join, again
leading to "could not devise a query plan" failures.  The restriction has
to be known also to join_is_legal and its cohort functions, so that they
will not select a join for which that will happen.  I chose to move the
supporting logic into joinrels.c where the latter functions are.

Back-patch to 9.3 where LATERAL support was introduced.

Further testing revealed that commit f69b4b94 was still a few
bricks shy of a load: minor tweaking of the previous test cases resulted
in the same wrong-outer-join-order problem coming back.  After study
I concluded that my previous changes in make_outerjoininfo() were just
accidentally masking the problem, and should be reverted in favor of
forcing syntactic join order whenever an upper outer join's predicate
doesn't mention a lower outer join's LHS.  This still allows the
chained-outer-joins style that is the normally optimizable case.

I also tightened things up some more in join_is_legal().  It seems to me
on review that what's really happening in the exception case where we
ignore a mismatched special join is that we're allowing the proposed join
to associate into the RHS of the outer join we're comparing it to.  As
such, we should *always* insist that the proposed join be a left join,
which eliminates a bunch of rather dubious argumentation.  The case where
we weren't enforcing that was the one that was already known buggy anyway
(it had a violatable Assert before the aforesaid commit) so it hardly
deserves a lot of deference.

Back-patch to all active branches, like the previous patch.  The added
regression test case failed in all branches back to 9.1, and I think it's
only an unrelated change in costing calculations that kept 9.0 from
choosing a broken plan.

An outer join clause that didn't actually reference the RHS (perhaps only
after constant-folding) could confuse the join order enforcement logic,
leading to wrong query results.  Also, nested occurrences of such things
could trigger an Assertion that on reflection seems incorrect.

Per fuzz testing by Andreas Seltenreich.  The practical use of such cases
seems thin enough that it's not too surprising we've not heard field
reports about it.

This has been broken for a long time, so back-patch to all active branches.

The original implementation of TABLESAMPLE modeled the tablesample method
API on index access methods, which wasn't a good choice because, without
specialized DDL commands, there's no way to build an extension that can
implement a TSM.  (Raw inserts into system catalogs are not an acceptable
thing to do, because we can't undo them during DROP EXTENSION, nor will
pg_upgrade behave sanely.)  Instead adopt an API more like procedural
language handlers or foreign data wrappers, wherein the only SQL-level
support object needed is a single handler function identified by having
a special return type.  This lets us get rid of the supporting catalog
altogether, so that no custom DDL support is needed for the feature.

Adjust the API so that it can support non-constant tablesample arguments
(the original coding assumed we could evaluate the argument expressions at
ExecInitSampleScan time, which is undesirable even if it weren't outright
unsafe), and discourage sampling methods from looking at invisible tuples.
Make sure that the BERNOULLI and SYSTEM methods are genuinely repeatable
within and across queries, as required by the SQL standard, and deal more
honestly with methods that can't support that requirement.

Make a full code-review pass over the tablesample additions, and fix
assorted bugs, omissions, infelicities, and cosmetic issues (such as
failure to put the added code stanzas in a consistent ordering).
Improve EXPLAIN's output of tablesample plans, too.

Back-patch to 9.5 so that we don't have to support the original API
in production.

An outer join appearing within the RHS of an antijoin can't commute with
the antijoin, but somehow I missed teaching make_outerjoininfo() about
that.  In Teodor Sigaev's recent trouble report, this manifests as a
"could not find RelOptInfo for given relids" error within eqjoinsel();
but I think silently wrong query results are possible too, if the planner
misorders the joins and doesn't happen to trigger any internal consistency
checks.  It's broken as far back as we had antijoins, so back-patch to all
supported branches.

If we have a semijoin, say
	SELECT * FROM x WHERE x1 IN (SELECT y1 FROM y)
and we're estimating the cost of a parameterized indexscan on x, the number
of repetitions of the indexscan should not be taken as the size of y; it'll
really only be the number of distinct values of y1, because the only valid
plan with y on the outside of a nestloop would require y to be unique-ified
before joining it to x.  Most of the time this doesn't make that much
difference, but sometimes it can lead to drastically underestimating the
cost of the indexscan and hence choosing a bad plan, as pointed out by
David Kubečka.

Fixing this is a bit difficult because parameterized indexscans are costed
out quite early in the planning process, before we have the information
that would be needed to call estimate_num_groups() and thereby estimate the
number of distinct values of the join column(s).  However we can move the
code that extracts a semijoin RHS's unique-ification columns, so that it's
done in initsplan.c rather than on-the-fly in create_unique_path().  That
shouldn't make any difference speed-wise and it's really a bit cleaner too.

The other bit of information we need is the size of the semijoin RHS,
which is easy if it's a single relation (we make those estimates before
considering indexscan costs) but problematic if it's a join relation.
The solution adopted here is just to use the product of the sizes of the
join component rels.  That will generally be an overestimate, but since
estimate_num_groups() only uses this input as a clamp, an overestimate
shouldn't hurt us too badly.  In any case we don't allow this new logic
to produce a value larger than we would have chosen before, so that at
worst an overestimate leaves us no wiser than we were before.

Backpatch certain files through 9.0

This includes removing tabs after periods in C comments, which was
applied to back branches, so this change should not effect backpatching.

When pulling a "postponed" qual from a LATERAL subquery up into the quals
of an outer join, we must make sure that the postponed qual is included
in those seen by make_outerjoininfo().  Otherwise we might compute a
too-small min_lefthand or min_righthand for the outer join, leading to
"JOIN qualification cannot refer to other relations" failures from
distribute_qual_to_rels.  Subtler errors in the created plan seem possible,
too, if the extra qual would only affect join ordering constraints.

Per bug #9041 from David Leverton.  Back-patch to 9.3.

Update all files in head, and files COPYRIGHT and legal.sgml in all back
branches.

This patch adds the ability to write TABLE( function1(), function2(), ...)
as a single FROM-clause entry.  The result is the concatenation of the
first row from each function, followed by the second row from each
function, etc; with NULLs inserted if any function produces fewer rows than
others.  This is believed to be a much more useful behavior than what
Postgres currently does with multiple SRFs in a SELECT list.

This syntax also provides a reasonable way to combine use of column
definition lists with WITH ORDINALITY: put the column definition list
inside TABLE(), where it's clear that it doesn't control the ordinality
column as well.

Also implement SQL-compliant multiple-argument UNNEST(), by turning
UNNEST(a,b,c) into TABLE(unnest(a), unnest(b), unnest(c)).

The SQL standard specifies TABLE() with only a single function, not
multiple functions, and it seems to require an implicit UNNEST() which is
not what this patch does.  There may be something wrong with that reading
of the spec, though, because if it's right then the spec's TABLE() is just
a pointless alternative spelling of UNNEST().  After further review of
that, we might choose to adopt a different syntax for what this patch does,
but in any case this functionality seems clearly worthwhile.

Andrew Gierth, reviewed by Zoltán Böszörményi and Heikki Linnakangas, and
significantly revised by me

Bug #8591 from Claudio Freire demonstrates that get_eclass_for_sort_expr
must be able to compute valid em_nullable_relids for any new equivalence
class members it creates.  I'd worried about this in the commit message
for db9f0e1d, but claimed that it wasn't a
problem because multi-member ECs should already exist when it runs.  That
is transparently wrong, though, because this function is also called by
initialize_mergeclause_eclasses, which runs during deconstruct_jointree.
The example given in the bug report (which the new regression test item
is based upon) fails because the COALESCE() expression is first seen by
initialize_mergeclause_eclasses rather than process_equivalence.

Fixing this requires passing the appropriate nullable_relids set to
get_eclass_for_sort_expr, and it requires new code to compute that set
for top-level expressions such as ORDER BY, GROUP BY, etc.  We store
the top-level nullable_relids in a new field in PlannerInfo to avoid
computing it many times.  In the back branches, I've added the new
field at the end of the struct to minimize ABI breakage for planner
plugins.  There doesn't seem to be a good alternative to changing
get_eclass_for_sort_expr's API signature, though.  There probably aren't
any third-party extensions calling that function directly; moreover,
if there are, they probably need to think about what to pass for
nullable_relids anyway.

Back-patch to 9.2, like the previous patch in this area.

In an example such as
SELECT * FROM
  i LEFT JOIN LATERAL (SELECT * FROM j WHERE i.n = j.n) j ON true;
it is safe to pull up the LATERAL subquery into its parent, but we must
then treat the "i.n = j.n" clause as a qual clause of the LEFT JOIN.  The
previous coding in deconstruct_recurse mistakenly labeled the clause as
"is_pushed_down", resulting in wrong semantics if the clause were applied
at the join node, as per an example submitted awhile ago by Jeremy Evans.
To fix, postpone processing of such clauses until we return back up to
the appropriate recursion depth in deconstruct_recurse.

In addition, tighten the is-safe-to-pull-up checks in is_simple_subquery;
we previously missed the possibility that the LATERAL subquery might itself
contain an outer join that makes lateral references in lower quals unsafe.

A regression test case equivalent to Jeremy's example was already in my
commit of yesterday, but was giving the wrong results because of this
bug.  This patch fixes the expected output for that, and also adds a
test case for the second problem.

The planner largely failed to consider the possibility that a
PlaceHolderVar's expression might contain a lateral reference to a Var
coming from somewhere outside the PHV's syntactic scope.  We had a previous
report of a problem in this area, which I tried to fix in a quick-hack way
in commit 4da6439b, but Antonin Houska
pointed out that there were still some problems, and investigation turned
up other issues.  This patch largely reverts that commit in favor of a more
thoroughly thought-through solution.  The new theory is that a PHV's
ph_eval_at level cannot be higher than its original syntactic level.  If it
contains lateral references, those don't change the ph_eval_at level, but
rather they create a lateral-reference requirement for the ph_eval_at join
relation.  The code in joinpath.c needs to handle that.

Another issue is that createplan.c wasn't handling nested PlaceHolderVars
properly.

In passing, push knowledge of lateral-reference checks for join clauses
into join_clause_is_movable_to.  This is mainly so that FDWs don't need
to deal with it.

This patch doesn't fix the original join-qual-placement problem reported by
Jeremy Evans (and indeed, one of the new regression test cases shows the
wrong answer because of that).  But the PlaceHolderVar problems need to be
fixed before that issue can be addressed, so committing this separately
seems reasonable.

The planner logic that attempted to make a preliminary estimate of the
ph_needed levels for PlaceHolderVars seems to be completely broken by
lateral references.  Fortunately, the potential join order optimization
that this code supported seems to be of relatively little value in
practice; so let's just get rid of it rather than trying to fix it.

Getting rid of this allows fairly substantial simplifications in
placeholder.c, too, so planning in such cases should be a bit faster.

Issue noted while pursuing bugs reported by Jeremy Evans and Antonin
Houska, though this doesn't in itself fix either of their reported cases.
What this does do is prevent an Assert crash in the kind of query
illustrated by the added regression test.  (I'm not sure that the plan for
that query is stable enough across platforms to be usable as a regression
test output ... but we'll soon find out from the buildfarm.)

Back-patch to 9.3.  The problem case can't arise without LATERAL, so
no need to touch older branches.

In commit 0ac5ad51 I changed some error messages from "FOR
UPDATE/SHARE" to a rather long gobbledygook which nobody liked.  Then,
in commit cb9b66d3 I changed them again, but the alternative chosen
there was deemed suboptimal by Peter Eisentraut, who in message
1373937980.20441.8.camel@vanquo.pezone.net proposed an alternative
involving a dynamically-constructed string based on the actual locking
strength specified in the SQL command.  This patch implements that
suggestion.

This is the first run of the Perl-based pgindent script.  Also update
pgindent instructions.

The wording changes applied in 0ac5ad51 were universally disliked.

Per gripe from Andrew Dunstan

This patch introduces two additional lock modes for tuples: "SELECT FOR
KEY SHARE" and "SELECT FOR NO KEY UPDATE".  These don't block each
other, in contrast with already existing "SELECT FOR SHARE" and "SELECT
FOR UPDATE".  UPDATE commands that do not modify the values stored in
the columns that are part of the key of the tuple now grab a SELECT FOR
NO KEY UPDATE lock on the tuple, allowing them to proceed concurrently
with tuple locks of the FOR KEY SHARE variety.

Foreign key triggers now use FOR KEY SHARE instead of FOR SHARE; this
means the concurrency improvement applies to them, which is the whole
point of this patch.

The added tuple lock semantics require some rejiggering of the multixact
module, so that the locking level that each transaction is holding can
be stored alongside its Xid.  Also, multixacts now need to persist
across server restarts and crashes, because they can now represent not
only tuple locks, but also tuple updates.  This means we need more
careful tracking of lifetime of pg_multixact SLRU files; since they now
persist longer, we require more infrastructure to figure out when they
can be removed.  pg_upgrade also needs to be careful to copy
pg_multixact files over from the old server to the new, or at least part
of multixact.c state, depending on the versions of the old and new
servers.

Tuple time qualification rules (HeapTupleSatisfies routines) need to be
careful not to consider tuples with the "is multi" infomask bit set as
being only locked; they might need to look up MultiXact values (i.e.
possibly do pg_multixact I/O) to find out the Xid that updated a tuple,
whereas they previously were assured to only use information readily
available from the tuple header.  This is considered acceptable, because
the extra I/O would involve cases that would previously cause some
commands to block waiting for concurrent transactions to finish.

Another important change is the fact that locking tuples that have
previously been updated causes the future versions to be marked as
locked, too; this is essential for correctness of foreign key checks.
This causes additional WAL-logging, also (there was previously a single
WAL record for a locked tuple; now there are as many as updated copies
of the tuple there exist.)

With all this in place, contention related to tuples being checked by
foreign key rules should be much reduced.

As a bonus, the old behavior that a subtransaction grabbing a stronger
tuple lock than the parent (sub)transaction held on a given tuple and
later aborting caused the weaker lock to be lost, has been fixed.

Many new spec files were added for isolation tester framework, to ensure
overall behavior is sane.  There's probably room for several more tests.

There were several reviewers of this patch; in particular, Noah Misch
and Andres Freund spent considerable time in it.  Original idea for the
patch came from Simon Riggs, after a problem report by Joel Jacobson.
Most code is from me, with contributions from Marti Raudsepp, Alexander
Shulgin, Noah Misch and Andres Freund.

This patch was discussed in several pgsql-hackers threads; the most
important start at the following message-ids:
	AANLkTimo9XVcEzfiBR-ut3KVNDkjm2Vxh+t8kAmWjPuv@mail.gmail.com
	1290721684-sup-3951@alvh.no-ip.org
	1294953201-sup-2099@alvh.no-ip.org
	1320343602-sup-2290@alvh.no-ip.org
	1339690386-sup-8927@alvh.no-ip.org
	4FE5FF020200002500048A3D@gw.wicourts.gov
	4FEAB90A0200002500048B7D@gw.wicourts.gov

Fully update git head, and update back branches in ./COPYRIGHT and
legal.sgml files.

If a potential equivalence clause references a variable from the nullable
side of an outer join, the planner needs to take care that derived clauses
are not pushed to below the outer join; else they may use the wrong value
for the variable.  (The problem arises only with non-strict clauses, since
if an upper clause can be proven strict then the outer join will get
simplified to a plain join.)  The planner attempted to prevent this type
of error by checking that potential equivalence clauses aren't
outerjoin-delayed as a whole, but actually we have to check each side
separately, since the two sides of the clause will get moved around
separately if it's treated as an equivalence.  Bugs of this type can be
demonstrated as far back as 7.4, even though releases before 8.3 had only
a very ad-hoc notion of equivalence clauses.

In addition, we neglected to account for the possibility that such clauses
might have nonempty nullable_relids even when not outerjoin-delayed; so the
equivalence-class machinery lacked logic to compute correct nullable_relids
values for clauses it constructs.  This oversight was harmless before 9.2
because we were only using RestrictInfo.nullable_relids for OR clauses;
but as of 9.2 it could result in pushing constructed equivalence clauses
to incorrect places.  (This accounts for bug #7604 from Bill MacArthur.)

Fix the first problem by adding a new test check_equivalence_delay() in
distribute_qual_to_rels, and fix the second one by adding code in
equivclass.c and called functions to set correct nullable_relids for
generated clauses.  Although I believe the second part of this is not
currently necessary before 9.2, I chose to back-patch it anyway, partly to
keep the logic similar across branches and partly because it seems possible
we might find other reasons why we need valid values of nullable_relids in
the older branches.

Add regression tests illustrating these problems.  In 9.0 and up, also
add test cases checking that we can push constants through outer joins,
since we've broken that optimization before and I nearly broke it again
with an overly simplistic patch for this problem.

If a PlaceHolderVar contains a pulled-up LATERAL reference, its minimum
possible evaluation level might be higher in the join tree than its
original syntactic location.  That in turn affects the ph_needed level for
any contained PlaceHolderVars (that is, those PHVs had better propagate up
the join tree at least to the evaluation level of the outer PHV).  We got
this mostly right, but mark_placeholder_maybe_needed() failed to account
for the effect, and in consequence could leave the inner PHVs with
ph_may_need less than what their ultimate ph_needed value will be.  That's
bad because it could lead to failure to select a join order that will allow
evaluation of the inner PHV at a valid location.  Fix that, and add an
Assert that checks that we don't ever set ph_needed to more than
ph_may_need.

The LATERAL implementation is now basically complete, and I still don't
see a cost-effective way to make an exact qual scope cross-check in the
presence of LATERAL.  However, I did add a PlannerInfo.hasLateralRTEs flag
along the way, so it's easy to make the check only when not hasLateralRTEs.
That seems to still be useful, and it beats having no check at all.

This patch takes care of a number of problems having to do with failure
to choose valid join orders and incorrect handling of lateral references
pulled up from subqueries.  Notable changes:

* Add a LateralJoinInfo data structure similar to SpecialJoinInfo, to
represent join ordering constraints created by lateral references.
(I first considered extending the SpecialJoinInfo structure, but the
semantics are different enough that a separate data structure seems
better.)  Extend join_is_legal() and related functions to prevent trying
to form unworkable joins, and to ensure that we will consider joins that
satisfy lateral references even if the joins would be clauseless.

* Fill in the infrastructure needed for the last few types of relation scan
paths to support parameterization.  We'd have wanted this eventually
anyway, but it is necessary now because a relation that gets pulled up out
of a UNION ALL subquery may acquire a reltargetlist containing lateral
references, meaning that its paths *have* to be parameterized whether or
not we have any code that can push join quals down into the scan.

* Compute data about lateral references early in query_planner(), and save
in RelOptInfo nodes, to avoid repetitive calculations later.

* Assorted corner-case bug fixes.

There's probably still some bugs left, but this is a lot closer to being
real than it was before.

Formerly, subquery pullup had no need to examine other entries in the range
table, since they could not contain any references to the subquery being
pulled up.  That's no longer true with LATERAL, so now we need to be able
to visit rangetable subexpressions to replace Vars referencing the
pulled-up subquery.  Also, this means that extract_lateral_references must
be unsurprised at encountering lateral PlaceHolderVars, since such might be
created when pulling up a subquery that's underneath an outer join with
respect to the lateral reference.

Re-allow subquery pullup for LATERAL subqueries, except when the subquery
is below an outer join and contains lateral references to relations outside
that outer join.  If we pull up in such a case, we risk introducing lateral
cross-references into outer joins' ON quals, which is something the code is
entirely unprepared to cope with right now; and I'm not sure it'll ever be
worth coping with.

Support lateral refs in VALUES (this seems to be the only additional path
type that needs such support as a consequence of re-allowing subquery
pullup).

Put in a slightly hacky fix for joinpath.c's refusal to consider
parameterized join paths even when there cannot be any unparameterized
ones.  This was causing "could not devise a query plan for the given query"
failures in queries involving more than two FROM items.

Put in an even more hacky fix for distribute_qual_to_rels() being unhappy
with join quals that contain references to rels outside their syntactic
scope; which is to say, disable that test altogether.  Need to think about
how to preserve some sort of debugging cross-check here, while not
expending more cycles than befits a debugging cross-check.

This patch implements the standard syntax of LATERAL attached to a
sub-SELECT in FROM, and also allows LATERAL attached to a function in FROM,
since set-returning function calls are expected to be one of the principal
use-cases.

The main change here is a rewrite of the mechanism for keeping track of
which relations are visible for column references while the FROM clause is
being scanned.  The parser "namespace" lists are no longer lists of bare
RTEs, but are lists of ParseNamespaceItem structs, which carry an RTE
pointer as well as some visibility-controlling flags.  Aside from
supporting LATERAL correctly, this lets us get rid of the ancient hacks
that required rechecking subqueries and JOIN/ON and function-in-FROM
expressions for invalid references after they were initially parsed.
Invalid column references are now always correctly detected on sight.

In passing, remove assorted parser error checks that are now dead code by
virtue of our having gotten rid of add_missing_from, as well as some
comments that are obsolete for the same reason.  (It was mainly
add_missing_from that caused so much fudging here in the first place.)

The planner support for this feature is very minimal, and will be improved
in future patches.  It works well enough for testing purposes, though.

catversion bump forced due to new field in RangeTblEntry.

commit-fest.

This patch adjusts the treatment of parameterized paths so that all paths
with the same parameterization (same set of required outer rels) for the
same relation will have the same rowcount estimate.  We cache the rowcount
estimates to ensure that property, and hopefully save a few cycles too.
Doing this makes it practical for add_path_precheck to operate without
a rowcount estimate: it need only assume that paths with different
parameterizations never dominate each other, which is close enough to
true anyway for coarse filtering, because normally a more-parameterized
path should yield fewer rows thanks to having more join clauses to apply.

In add_path, we do the full nine yards of comparing rowcount estimates
along with everything else, so that we can discard parameterized paths that
don't actually have an advantage.  This fixes some issues I'd found with
add_path rejecting parameterized paths on the grounds that they were more
expensive than not-parameterized ones, even though they yielded many fewer
rows and hence would be cheaper once subsequent joining was considered.

To make the same-rowcounts assumption valid, we have to require that any
parameterized path enforce *all* join clauses that could be obtained from
the particular set of outer rels, even if not all of them are useful for
indexing.  This is required at both base scans and joins.  It's a good
thing anyway since the net impact is that join quals are checked at the
lowest practical level in the join tree.  Hence, discard the original
rather ad-hoc mechanism for choosing parameterization joinquals, and build
a better one that has a more principled rule for when clauses can be moved.
The original rule was actually buggy anyway for lack of knowledge about
which relations are part of an outer join's outer side; getting this right
requires adding an outer_relids field to RestrictInfo.